How the Internet Works
Understanding the Internet: A Comprehensive Overview
The Internet has become an integral component of modern existence. Access is readily available through a multitude of devices, including desktop computers, work stations, laptops, and mobile phones.
Despite this widespread accessibility, a complete understanding of the Internet’s underlying mechanisms remains elusive for many individuals.
Introducing "How The Internet Works"
MakeUseOf has recently released a new PDF guide designed to demystify the Internet. Entitled “How The Internet Works,” this resource, authored by Taty Sena, delves into the foundational elements that drive the contemporary Internet.
The guide comprehensively examines the hardware, software, and organizations responsible for the Internet’s functionality.
What You Will Discover
This guide provides insights into the Internet’s evolution, tracing its history from inception to its current state.
It also details the various entities that contribute to the Internet’s operation today. Readers will gain a broader perspective on the infrastructure supporting their daily online activities.
While technical expertise isn’t required to utilize the Internet, gaining a foundational understanding can be remarkably beneficial. Educating yourself about the network you rely on daily is a worthwhile endeavor.
Consider this guide a valuable resource for anyone seeking to expand their knowledge of the digital world.
Table of Contents
This document provides an overview of the Internet, its history, underlying technologies, governance, and current trends.
§1–Introduction
The Internet has become an indispensable part of modern life. It’s a global network connecting billions of devices and users worldwide.
Understanding its foundations is crucial for navigating the digital age effectively.
§2–A brief history about the Internet
The Internet’s origins can be traced back to the 1960s, during the Cold War. The U.S. Department of Defense’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) initiated a project called ARPANET.
ARPANET aimed to create a decentralized communication network resilient to disruptions.
In 1983, the TCP/IP protocol suite was standardized, marking a pivotal moment in the Internet’s development.
The World Wide Web, invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, further popularized the Internet, making it accessible to a wider audience.
§3–Transferring Information
Information travels across the Internet in packets. These packets are small units of data that are routed independently.
IP addresses serve as unique identifiers for each device connected to the network, enabling data delivery.
Data transmission relies on various technologies, including fiber optic cables, wireless networks, and satellite links.
§4–The Basic Languages and Protocols of the Web
Several core languages and protocols underpin the functionality of the web.
- HTML (HyperText Markup Language): Structures the content of web pages.
- CSS (Cascading Style Sheets): Controls the visual presentation of web pages.
- JavaScript: Enables interactive elements and dynamic behavior on web pages.
- HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Governs the communication between web browsers and servers.
- HTTPS (HTTP Secure): A secure version of HTTP, encrypting data for enhanced security.
These technologies work in concert to deliver the web experience users enjoy.
§5–Who runs the Internet?
The Internet isn't controlled by a single entity. Instead, it operates as a decentralized network governed by various organizations.
ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) manages the domain name system and IP addresses.
ISPs (Internet Service Providers) provide access to the Internet for individuals and organizations.
Numerous other organizations, including standards bodies and regional registries, contribute to the Internet’s operation and evolution.
§6–Current Internet Trends
The Internet is constantly evolving, with several key trends shaping its future.
- Mobile Internet: Increasing access via smartphones and tablets.
- Cloud Computing: Delivering computing services over the Internet.
- Internet of Things (IoT): Connecting everyday objects to the Internet.
- Artificial Intelligence (AI): Integration of AI technologies into web applications.
- 5G Technology: Faster and more reliable wireless connectivity.
These trends are driving innovation and transforming how we interact with the digital world.
§7–How the Web Changed the World
The World Wide Web has profoundly impacted numerous aspects of society.
It has revolutionized communication, enabling instant global connectivity.
Access to information has been democratized, empowering individuals with knowledge.
E-commerce has transformed the retail landscape, providing consumers with greater choice and convenience.
The web has also fostered new forms of social interaction and community building.
§8–Cool Web Statistics
The scale of the Internet is truly remarkable.
As of 2023, over 5 billion people worldwide use the Internet.
Billions of websites are currently active, containing vast amounts of information.
Data traffic continues to grow exponentially, driven by increasing bandwidth and user demand.
§9–Conclusion
The Internet has evolved from a research project into a global infrastructure. Its impact on society is undeniable.
Continued innovation and collaboration will be essential for shaping the Internet’s future and harnessing its full potential.
1. Introduction
The pervasive impact of the Internet is undeniable. Emerging in the 1990s, it rapidly transitioned from a novel technology understood by a select few to an indispensable component of modern life.
The World Wide Web serves as a potent global connector, facilitating unprecedented levels of information exchange. While challenges are emerging alongside its benefits, the web’s integral role in our routines remains firmly established.
Access to the Internet is now commonplace through various devices, including home computers, workplace networks, laptops, and mobile phones. Despite this widespread accessibility, a comprehensive understanding of the Internet’s functionality remains elusive for many.
This resource aims to clarify these concepts, beginning with a historical overview of its development.
2. A brief history of the Internet
The Internet, like many groundbreaking innovations, originated from the vision of a select group of individuals who dared to envision what seemed impossible. In 1962, Leonard Kleinrock, while at MIT, published the pioneering paper on packet switching theory. This technology enabled the transfer of information in discrete packets. Simultaneously, J.C.R. Licklider, also of MIT, authored memos outlining a “Galactic Network,” a concept for universal information access.
The narrative might have concluded at this point. However, Licklider became the initial director of the computer research program at DARPA – the U.S. Department of Defense’s research and development agency. He successfully advocated for networking research as a crucial endeavor to his successors.
In 1965, Lawrence G. Roberts, a researcher at MIT, collaborated with Thomas Merrill to connect the TX-2 computer in Massachusetts to the Q-32 in California via a low-speed telephone line. This ARPA-sponsored project aimed to investigate a “cooperative network of time-sharing computers.” This marked the creation of the first long-distance computer network, demonstrating its feasibility – though also highlighting the limitations of existing telephone lines for data transmission. Roberts subsequently developed plans for the “ARPANET” in 1966, the precursor to the modern Internet.
2.1 Early Development
The ARPANET’s development encountered initial challenges. On October 29, 1969, Charley Kline at UCLA attempted to transmit the first packet to the Stanford Research Institute. He intended to send the word LOGIN, but the system failed after transmitting the letter G.
By 1972, Ray Tomlinson developed email for the ARPANET, introducing the "@" symbol for email addresses.
A protocol known as FTP (File Transfer Protocol) was established in 1973, facilitating file transfers between hosts and sites. This protocol remains in use today for uploading files to servers and websites.
The 1980s witnessed the emergence of the first private ISP (Internet Service Provider), alongside Listserv software which streamlined information exchange.
Broad adoption of the Internet began in the 1990s. Archie, created at McGill University in Montreal, became the first search engine. This was followed by WAIS and Gopher in 1991.
Lycos was launched in 1993, and Yahoo was founded in 1994. However, a significant shift in web searching occurred in 1998 with the introduction of Google, a search engine characterized by its simplicity and efficiency.
2.2 Current
While Google did not originate the web itself, its arrival in the late 1990s proved to be a pivotal moment in its widespread acceptance. The phrase “to Google” quickly became synonymous with searching the web.
The 1990s saw substantial investment in technology, with investors and companies viewing the web as a new investment avenue. However, many of these investments failed, leading to the “dot-com bubble” burst in 2000, with most high-investment dot-coms collapsing between 2001 and 2002.
Ironically, the bursting of the dot-com bubble did not diminish the Internet’s potential. In the subsequent years, it proved to be immensely profitable and once again attracted significant investment.
The Internet became so integral to daily life that it posed an existential threat to businesses that failed to establish a robust online presence.
3. Transferring Information
3.1 Computers
For end-users, computers serve as the primary gateway to the Internet. Accessing files hosted on websites necessitates a computer equipped with an Internet connection. While most computers fulfill this requirement, increasing web complexity demands greater computational capabilities.
3.2 Cables
Several cable types currently facilitate computer-to-Internet connectivity. Commonly used options include phone lines, utilized for DSL and modem connections, and Broadband RJ-45 (ethernet) cables. Phone lines can directly connect to modems or, for DSL users, to a router and subsequently an RJ-45 cable. Broadband and T1 users, conversely, employ HFC and RFoG networks instead of traditional phone lines.
(From left to right: RJ-45, RJ-12, RJ-11, and RJ-22 connectors)
3.3 ISPs (Internet Service Providers)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs), like Time Warner Cable, Comcast, and Verizon DSL, provide Internet access to homes and workplaces for a recurring fee. They represent the connection between users and the broader Internet network, granting access to their infrastructure. Essentially, the cost covers the use of their physical assets: cabling, computers, routers, modems, maintenance personnel, and the facilities housing these components.
The Internet itself and the data it contains are largely free; however, an ISP is essential for accessing this information.
3.4 Hosts, Servers
The data viewed online is stored on computers known as hosts or servers, which continuously transmit information to the World Wide Web. Major web hosting companies maintain large facilities housing hundreds or even thousands of servers to accommodate the websites they host. When a website address is entered into a browser, these servers receive the request and deliver the corresponding content.
While it’s possible to configure a personal computer as a server, performance may be limited when handling numerous simultaneous access requests.
3.5 IPs (Internet Protocol) Addresses
Websites, computers on a network, and hosts are uniquely identified by a numerical sequence called an IP address. Your own computer also possesses an IP address, which can be determined by visiting websites like http://whatismyipaddress.com/
Websites utilize public IP addresses as their online identifiers. For instance, Google is commonly accessed via Google.com, but its actual IP address is 66.102.7.99. Typing this IP address into a browser will also direct you to Google.
Consider this analogy:
Imagine your address is 125 Happy Street, but you place a sign reading “Bob’s House” on your door, effectively masking the street number. You can then instruct friends to find “Bob’s House,” which is easier to remember, but your actual address remains 125 Happy Street. In this scenario, “Bob’s House” represents your Domain Name, and 125 Happy Street is your IP address.
The IP address and server location of Makeuseof.com.
3.6 DNS (Domain Name System)
A domain name serves as a user-friendly alias for a website’s IP address. These domains are assigned to IP addresses through a Domain Name Registry overseen by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
You can acquire a domain name from a registrar, such as GoDaddy.com or NetworkSolutions.com, and link it to your website’s hosting location. This ensures that users typing your web address are directed to your site.
Domains are structured hierarchically, from right to left. For example, consider the domain:
http://www.beholders.org
The top-level domain is the ending portion of the address (.org in this case), while the mid-level domain is beholders.
Common top-level domains include:
- com - commercial business
- gov - Government agencies
- edu - Educational institutions
- org - Organizations (non-profit)
- mil - Military
- net - Network organizations
Currently, there are 21 generic top-level domains and 250 two-letter country-code top-level domains, such as:
- .br for Brazil
- .fr for France
- .in for India
3.7 URLs
URLs provide specific pathways to particular sections within a Domain Name. While often used interchangeably, a key distinction exists. The Domain Name encompasses all URLs within its scope. A URL, however, points to a precise location.
For example:
http://www.beholders.org is the Domain Name. However, a URL pointing to a specific page on that site might be:
http://www.beholders.org/beholdersgroup/projectswesupport.html
The confusion arises because people often request the simplest URL form – the site’s homepage (beholders.org) – which also happens to be the Domain Address.
URLs typically contain more detailed information, including the page address, folder name, and protocol language.
Breaking down the example above:
- http:// - Hypertext Transfer Protocol
- www. – World Wide Web
- beholders.org/ – The Domain Name
- beholdersgroup/ – Folder or sub-category
- projectswesupport. – Page name
- html – Language protocol
4. The Foundational Languages and Protocols of the Web
Protocols represent the established rules and languages employed for the exchange of information or data. The following sections detail some of the most commonly utilized web protocols.
4.1 HTML
Developed around 1991, HyperText Markup Language (HTML) initially featured 20 tags. From the early stages of website development, HTML has served as a primary language for conveying information, particularly in the construction of websites.
HTML is generally considered a static language, as the content written within its structure is typically displayed directly in the browser, offering limited interactive capabilities between the user and the page.
A sample of HTML code is presented below:
The vast majority of websites utilize at least some HTML to render their content. However, many modern, larger sites are connected to databases and employ other, more “dynamic” languages. You can inspect the source code of most webpages using your browser’s “view source” option; typically, this will reveal predominantly HTML code.
Detailed specifications for the current version of HTML (4.01) are available at: http://www.w3.org/TR/html401/
4.2 PHP, ASP and Databases
Websites leveraging databases are often termed “dynamic” sites. Unlike HTML, which stores content directly within the code, dynamic sites utilize code as a gateway to a database. These interactions are known as “queries” – requests for information answered by the database, where the actual data resides.
Consider a dynamic site with a user registration form. Upon entering information and submitting, the form transmits this data to the database, instructing it to store the details with corresponding labels for name, address, password, and so on.
Subsequently, when a user attempts to log in, the page sends a query to the database to verify the user’s existence. If a match is found, access is granted; otherwise, an error message, such as “User not found,” is displayed.
Further information regarding PHP and ASP can be found at: http://www.php.net/ and http://www.asp.net/
4.3 XML
eXtensible Markup Language (XML) originated in 1998 with the release of XML 1.0. It is a markup language primarily used for structuring documents and facilitating data transfer between applications. Its configurability also makes it effective for information exchange between databases.
XML specifications are accessible at: http://www.w3.org/XML/
4.4 Flash
Developed by Macromedia in 1996, Flash emerged as a tool for creating visually engaging websites and multimedia content. It addressed limitations of HTML, which was relatively static prior to the advent of HTML 5. Flash enabled the creation of sites with animated elements, music, and action script, requiring only a single plugin download for viewing.
It gained widespread adoption, reaching over 100 million users by 2009, and its plugin was commonly found on computers with internet access.
Additional details about Flash can be found at: http://www.adobe.com/products/flash/
4.5 Java
Released by Sun Microsystems in 1995, Java is a programming language utilized for numerous web and non-web applications, including games and software. Similar to Flash, it necessitates the download of software, typically in the form of a plugin, to function.
More information on Java is available at: http://www.java.com/en/
4.6 Ajax
Ajax, an acronym for Asynchronous Javascript And XML, is a relatively recent technology in its current form, although its underlying languages have existed for some time. The term was coined in 2005 by Jesse James Garrett.
Ajax facilitates the loading of information on a webpage without requiring full page reloads, as is typical with HTML. This enhances interactivity and creates a less document-centric web experience. Consequently, Ajax is frequently employed by e-commerce and resource-intensive websites to display additional content without navigating to separate pages.
(Pop up utilizing Ajax. A bubble appears when the mouse cursor hovers over the link.) Valuable resources regarding Ajax can be found at: http://www.ajaxmatters.com
5. Governance of the Internet
The Internet isn't governed by a single entity. Rather, its functionality and evolution are overseen by a diverse collection of international bodies. A concise overview of several key organizations is provided below.
5.1 ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
ICANN, or the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, is the primary organization tasked with establishing and enforcing regulations concerning domain names and their corresponding IP addresses. It essentially manages the foundational elements of web addressing.
5.2 IGF: Internet Governance Forum
Established in 2006, the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) operates as a discussion platform under the auspices of the United Nations. It serves as a crucial arena for global conversations regarding the future trajectory of the Internet.
5.3 W3C: World Wide Web Consortium
The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) maintains the standards that govern web protocol development, including languages like HTML and XML. Their work defines how web browsers interpret and support these languages.
5.4 IANA: Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
Dating back to the 1970s, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is a long-standing Internet regulatory body. It coordinates IP addresses and registries, ensuring their seamless interoperability.
6. Current Internet Trends
6.1 Online Media (Newspapers, Magazines)
The Internet has fundamentally reshaped the landscape of print media. The ability to publish online magazines and newspapers, bypassing the costs of printing and physical distribution, has empowered numerous smaller publishers to establish an online presence.
This shift has also necessitated that major media organizations develop websites, responding to public expectations for immediate news delivery, a contrast to the delays inherent in traditional print cycles. Individuals now have the means to launch their own news platforms, and blogs have assumed a role previously held exclusively by printed publications. While magazine and newspaper sales have declined, website traffic continues to rise.
The emergence of e-readers like Kindle and iPad is poised to further diminish the reliance on printed materials. Are we witnessing the decline of paper-based magazines and newspapers?
6.2 Multimedia
Multimedia represents a significant and expansive sector within the modern Internet. It includes a diverse range of content, such as images, audio, video, animations, and interactive elements.
Initially, the Internet’s limited bandwidth and the processing capabilities of early computers restricted the widespread use of multimedia. Downloading even compressed images could be a lengthy process, resulting in small, low-resolution visuals. The prospect of streaming music or video seemed distant at the time. Simple GIF animations were considered cutting-edge.
However, the prevalence of high-speed Internet access has made multimedia an integral component of most websites. It’s now unusual to encounter a site lacking visual or graphic elements.
Platforms dedicated entirely to multimedia, like YouTube and Vimeo, have gained immense popularity. Digital music downloads have revolutionized the music industry.
The film industry has also experienced substantial disruption through streaming services such as Netflix, enabling on-demand access to new releases. Do you recall the era of video rental stores? The convenience of streaming on mobile devices renders them largely obsolete.
6.3 Social Networks
Social networks have become virtually synonymous with the contemporary Internet experience. Even prior to the widespread adoption of social media, the Internet facilitated social interaction. Chat rooms provided an early platform for real-time communication, transcending geographical boundaries much like the telephone.
These chat rooms fostered a unique form of interaction, connecting strangers with shared interests. The social networking format gained prominence with MySpace, which, despite a decline in popularity, demonstrated a significant public interest in using the Internet as a live social medium. At its peak in 2006, MySpace boasted 100 million active users.
Currently, Facebook leads this trend, with a user base exceeding 500 million. Businesses have recognized the value of reaching potential customers through social networks and are investing heavily in these platforms. It is increasingly rare to find a business without a presence on Facebook and Twitter.
6.4 Wi-Fi
The demand for constant connectivity has driven the widespread adoption of Wi-Fi connections by individuals and businesses alike. Wi-Fi technology, based on IEEE 802.11 standards, enables devices to connect wirelessly, eliminating the need for physical cables.
Establishing a wireless network is straightforward with an affordable wireless router connected to a wired network or directly to a broadband connection. This provides considerable flexibility, particularly for laptop users and businesses seeking to deploy computers without extensive cabling. Wi-Fi is also commonly found in public spaces to attract internet users.
6.5 Mobile Internet
Recent years have seen a surge in the popularity of Mobile Internet access, prompting businesses to create websites and applications specifically designed for mobile devices. Phones have evolved from simple communication tools to miniature computers, offering web access, document creation, financial management, video recording, and online sharing capabilities.
The emergence of devices like Blackberries, iPhones, iPads, and the proliferation of Android smartphones and tablets indicates that mobile devices will play an increasingly significant role in Internet connectivity. Unlike traditional land-based connections, mobile devices rely heavily on satellite technology to connect users to the Internet.
7. How the Web Reshaped the World
The alterations in communication brought about by the Internet are virtually limitless in scope. Originating as a restricted communication system for researchers and academics, the capacity to disseminate information with such freedom proved groundbreaking. The World Wide Web, as it’s commonly known, serves precisely this purpose – connecting individuals and facilitating the exchange of ideas in unprecedented ways.
As children, we often fantasized about a device capable of answering any question. That envisioned device is now a reality, and it is known as Google.
The consequences of this shift are substantial. Individuals globally can now share ideas instantaneously. Traditional newspapers are becoming outdated as information about events becomes available within seconds of their occurrence. Email has transformed letter writing into a cherished, rather than essential, form of communication.
Websites have democratized access to information previously confined to books, which required physical distribution and storage, limiting access to those with library privileges or financial resources. The vast majority of websites are freely accessible to millions of users at any time.
Organizations, including businesses, healthcare facilities, and financial institutions, have transitioned from paper-based systems to digital file management. Data is now readily available through databases, reducing reliance on memory and minimizing errors, while simultaneously expanding access for a greater number of people.
Entire infrastructures have been developed to support these changes. Specialized buildings now house servers, and cabling and satellite systems have been upgraded to enhance information distribution. Entirely virtual, location-independent companies have emerged. A nation’s technological proficiency is increasingly viewed as a key indicator of its development potential, as geographical limitations are significantly diminished by the web. Communication with someone across the globe is now as simple as conversing with a neighbor.
7.1 The Last Decade
The past decade represents the most significant period of transformation in recent history. The Internet has fostered a completely new lifestyle, maturing and becoming the new standard. Changes like the adoption of email over traditional mail and the use of websites instead of phone books were merely initial indicators of a much larger shift.
The media landscape is undergoing a near-complete transition to digital formats. Magazines and newspapers are evolving into websites and blogs, videos are becoming streaming content, and television is gradually incorporating web-like features. Capabilities such as rewinding live TV, recording programs, remote scheduling, and on-demand movie streaming mirror the online user experience. Platforms like Google TV provide a gateway to a fully web-integrated television experience.
Landline phones are being progressively replaced by smartphones, which represent an extension of the web into our daily routines. Even traditional phone systems are now being driven by web-based VOIP services. An increasing number of applications and documents are being stored in web-based cloud services, suggesting a future where most of our information exists solely in digital form.
Within a decade, we have transitioned from a predominantly analog world to one governed by virtual information, prompting speculation about the developments the next decade will bring.
8. Fascinating Web Statistics
8.1 Global Web User Count
Current estimates suggest that around 1.7 billion individuals are active web users. This figure represented roughly 25% of the global population as of 2010.
8.2 Demographic Breakdown of Web Users
Internet access varies significantly across different regions of the world, as indicated by the following percentages of their respective populations:
Africa – 10.9%
Asia – 21.5%
Europe - 58.4%
Middle East – 28.9%
North America – 77.4% (Notably, over 22% of North Americans still lack web access).
Latin America – 34.5%
Oceania / Australia – 61.3%
8.3 Predominant Devices Used for Web Access
8.4 Total Number of Websites
The number of websites currently in existence is approximately 250 million.
8.5 Leading Websites Globally
The ten most visited websites worldwide are as follows:
1 – Google
2 – Facebook
3 – YouTube
4 – Yahoo
5 – Windows Live
6 – Baidu
7 – Wikipedia
8 – Blogger
9 – QQ
10 - Twitter
8.6 Additional Interesting Web Facts
- In 2009, an estimated 90 trillion emails were transmitted, with spam accounting for 81% of that volume.
- Approximately 148,000 computers are compromised daily and utilized for sending spam.
- The Falkland Islands boasts the highest internet penetration rate globally, at 100%. Iceland follows closely with 97.6%, and Norway with 94.8%.
- Social networks are predominantly female, with women comprising 84% of users.
- A significant portion of the online gaming community is female, representing 64% of players.
- Facebook processes an impressive 6 million pages every minute.
9. Conclusion
The advent of the Internet has fundamentally reshaped human interaction and our relationship with the world. While unprecedented access to information is now available, it’s crucial to acknowledge that not all online content is beneficial, and not all changes have been positive.
A significant portion of the population has encountered difficulties adapting to this increasingly virtual landscape. Many struggle to keep pace with the rapid evolution of technology, a challenge vividly illustrated by those who’ve assisted older generations with platforms like Facebook.
Furthermore, the technological revolution has disproportionately impacted individuals experiencing poverty or residing in areas with limited Internet connectivity. Approximately 75% of the global population currently lacks Internet access, and this disparity is projected to widen as more essential services become digitally reliant.
For those with access to the latest technological advancements, life has become a large-scale experiment. We now consume books on e-readers, navigate using GPS on smartphones, connect with friends through social media, and share updates on platforms like Twitter and Foursquare.
We engage in global online gaming and carry extensive music libraries on portable devices. The central question now revolves around establishing a sustainable balance.
Our reliance on technology has, to some degree, impacted our social skills and ability to function independently of it. The upcoming generation, having never known a world without the Internet, will face these challenges most acutely.
The expectation is that, as the initial excitement subsides, we will discover a way to harness the benefits of new technologies without succumbing to complete dependence. The immediate future holds numerous intriguing possibilities, and we will continue to observe its unfolding.
Additional Reading
- Whatever Happened To…? Following Up On Major Websites From The Dotcom Boom
- 5 Internet Commandments To Live By Or Incur The Wrath Of The Web
- Must-Watch Documentaries About The Birth of Computers & The Internet
- 2012 Internet & Mobile Trends [INFOGRAPHIC]
- The Internet & The World Wide Web Are Not the Same Thing [MakeUseOf Explains]
Guide Published: April 2011
